badham_2017_deficits
Ninety-six participants (48 younger, 48 older adults) performed four Shepard–Hovland–Jenkins category-learning structures (Types I–IV, varying in rule complexity) as binary two-choice classification tasks with feedback across up to 6 blocks of 16 trials each (a structure ended early once two consecutive blocks were perfect; N=96 total). Each trial records the stimulus features (size, colour, form), the participant's category response, feedback, correctness, and reaction time. The study asks whether age-related category-learning deficits are best explained by rule-based accounts (e.g., COVIS) or a clustering account in which older adults build fewer/less differentiated prototypes, adjudicated by fitting 16 variants of the Rational Model of Categorization (differing in which parameters vary between age groups) and by analyses of single-dimensional rule use (Hamming distances, consecutive-trial consistency); COVIS, exemplar, and prototype models are discussed but not fitted.
Responses
33,792
3,184 held out
CORE effects
2 / 2
CORE test NLL (avg)
0.544
rank 3 of 7 models
Best model
Centaur
test NLL (avg) 0.540
Likelihood of human responses
| model | PNLL | test NLL (avg) | test responses | train NLL (avg) | train responses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CORE | 1,733.8 | 0.5445 | 3,184 | 0.5027 | 30,608 |
| CORE (no prediction errors) | 1,750.3 | 0.5497 | 3,184 | 0.5051 | 30,608 |
| CORE (no phonemes) | 1,731.6 | 0.5439 | 3,184 | 0.4851 | 30,608 |
| CORE (no forgetting) | 1,783.0 | 0.5600 | 3,184 | 0.5309 | 30,608 |
| CORE (no hierarchy) | 2,208.7 | 0.6937 | 3,184 | 0.6954 | 30,608 |
| Transformer | 2,184.4 | 0.6861 | 3,184 | 0.6710 | 30,608 |
| Centaur best | 1,720.3 | 0.5403 | 3,184 | – | – |
Experiments
| exp | task class | participants | responses | conditions | simulated | effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| exp0 | CategoryLearning | 96 | 33,792 | 2 | yes | learning_over_blocks, structure_complexity |
Behavioral effects
| effect | experiment | paper | CORE | CORE (no prediction errors) | CORE (no phonemes) | CORE (no forgetting) | CORE (no hierarchy) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
learning_over_blocks | exp0 | +0.600 | ✓ yes +0.220 | ✓ yes +0.220 | ✓ yes +0.189 | ✓ yes +0.194 | ✗ no +0.011 |
classification accuracy should improve across the 6 learning blocks; a paired t-test of block 5 vs block 0 per participant should show a positive increase (p < .05). | |||||||
structure_complexity | exp0 | +0.580 | ✓ yes +0.059 | ✓ yes +0.108 | ✓ yes +0.124 | ✓ yes +0.105 | ✗ no -0.007 |
Type I (one relevant dimension) should be learned better than the more complex Types II-IV; a paired t-test of mean Type I accuracy vs mean of Types II-IV per participant should show Type I > others. | |||||||
Transcript
This is a category-learning task. Your goal is to learn a rule that allows you to tell whether each example belongs in the alpha or beta category: four of the shapes you will see belong in the alpha category and four belong in the beta category. On each trial a shape appears in the middle of the screen. Press A if you think it belongs in the alpha category, or press B if you think it belongs in the beta category. The words Alpha and Beta appear at the bottom corners of the screen to remind you which is which. After each response you get feedback: the same shape reappears with Correct! or Incorrect! followed by the correct answer (Answer = Alpha or Answer = Beta), and this will gradually teach you the rule. You will go through several conditions, and each one has its own new rule; you may take a break between conditions if you wish. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. A new rule will determine which images belong to each category. Continue. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. A new rule will determine which images belong to each category. Continue. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. A new rule will determine which images belong to each category. Continue. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta.
This is a category-learning task. Your goal is to learn a rule that allows you to tell whether each example belongs in the alpha or beta category: four of the shapes you will see belong in the alpha category and four belong in the beta category. On each trial a shape appears in the middle of the screen. Press A if you think it belongs in the alpha category, or press B if you think it belongs in the beta category. The words Alpha and Beta appear at the bottom corners of the screen to remind you which is which. After each response you get feedback: the same shape reappears with Correct! or Incorrect! followed by the correct answer (Answer = Alpha or Answer = Beta), and this will gradually teach you the rule. You will go through several conditions, and each one has its own new rule; you may take a break between conditions if you wish. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. A new rule will determine which images belong to each category. Continue. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. A new rule will determine which images belong to each category. Continue. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. A new rule will determine which images belong to each category. Continue. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white square. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large black triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a large white triangle. You press A. Correct! The answer is Alpha. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small white square. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a large black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a large white square. You press B. Incorrect! The answer is Alpha. You see a small white triangle. You press A. Incorrect! The answer is Beta. You see a small white triangle. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta. You see a small black square. You press B. Correct! The answer is Beta.